Green Jobs

GREEN JOB OPENINGS

http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/jobs/

Jun 24 Regional Director- Power Generation & Renewables KEMA Portland, OR

* Renewable Energy includes all forms of renewable energy generation from project ... generation technologies: * Renewable Energy: Wind, PV, Concentrated Solar, Biomass, Tidal,... more
Jun 24 Regional Director- Power Generation & Renewables KEMA Kansas City, MO

* Renewable Energy includes all forms of renewable energy generation from project ... generation technologies: * Renewable Energy: Wind, PV, Concentrated Solar, Biomass, Tidal,... more
Jun 24 Regional Director- Power Generation & Renewables KEMA Miami, FL

* Renewable Energy includes all forms of renewable energy generation from project ... generation technologies: * Renewable Energy: Wind, PV, Concentrated Solar, Biomass, Tidal,... more
Jun 24 Regional Director- Power Generation & Renewables KEMA Colorado Springs, CO

* Renewable Energy includes all forms of renewable energy generation from project ... generation technologies: * Renewable Energy: Wind, PV, Concentrated Solar, Biomass, Tidal,... more
Jun 24 Regional Director- Power Generation & Renewables KEMA Arlington, TX

* Renewable Energy includes all forms of renewable energy generation from project ... generation technologies: * Renewable Energy: Wind, PV, Concentrated Solar, Biomass, Tidal,... more
Jun 24 Regional Director- Power Generation & Renewables KEMA Wichita, KS

* Renewable Energy includes all forms of renewable energy generation from project ... generation technologies: * Renewable Energy: Wind, PV, Concentrated Solar, Biomass, Tidal,... more
Jun 24 FIELD SERVICE TECHNICIAN - SOLAR! Alteris Renewables, A Real Goods Solar Company Parsippany, NJ

and strong communications skills. Real Goods Solar, Inc. (Nasdaq:RSOL) and Alteris ... merger agreement to create a multi-state solar integration powerhouse. The merger... more
Jun 24 SR Energy Sales Executive-$100-150K New York, NY

My client, an up and coming renewable giant is seeking several degreed ... with 2-6 years experience selling solar, wind or related energy programs. Candidate... more
Jun 24 Green Energy Wants YOU Aerotek Fort Collins, CO

with renewable energies like WIND and SOLAR POWER? Well, if you have experience with assembly, production, maintenance, mechanics, electronics, or wiring then the green energy... more
Jun 23 Solar Project Engineer Rmt Madison, WI

Solar Project Engineer will support RMT's renewable energy electrical design and ... for utility scale solar, and other renewable energy projects as required. In... more
Jun 23 SR Energy Sales Executive-$100-150K Philadelphia, PA

My client, an up and coming renewable giant is seeking several degreed ... with 2-6 years experience selling solar, wind or related energy programs. Candidate... more
Jun 22 Solar/ Green Building LEED Jobs USA Green Jobs Now Tampa, FL

Solar/ Green Building LEED Jobswww.USA Green Jobs Now.OrgEnergy Jobs/USA Green Jobs Now.Or ... Coordination, Smart Grid Engineering, Renewable Commissioning Management,... more
Jun 21 Administrator- Network II First Solar Perrysburg, OH

development and manufacturing of thin film solar modules used in grid-connected solar ... plants, as well as a provider of complete solar generation solutions for U.S. more
Jun 20 Lead Software Engineer, Electric Vehicle Charging Station - 1380967 GE Energy San Ramon, CA

from biochemist to finance specialist to wind energy engineer. Were passionate about ... as well as with renewable resources such as water, wind, solar and alternative... more
Jun 20 User Experience Engineer, Electric Vehicle Charging Station - 1369723 GE Energy San Ramon, CA

from biochemist to finance specialist to wind energy engineer. Were passionate about ... as well as with renewable resources such as water, wind, solar and alternative... more
Jun 20 Lead Software Quality Engineer- Electric Vehicle - 1378577 GE Energy San Ramon, CA

from biochemist to finance specialist to wind energy engineer. Were passionate about ... energy as well as with renewable resources such as water, wind, solar and alternative... more
Jun 20 Director of Sales - North America Adecco Direct Hire Houston, TX

Provider of software and analytics for the renewable energy industry, specifically wind ... development/sales, preferably in the renewable energy software field. In addition... more
Jun 19 Principal Mixed-Signal Circuit Design Engineer - Renewable Energy National Semiconductor Santa Clara, CA

Mixed-Signal Circuit Design Engineer - Renewable Energy Profession: Computer ... Mixed-Signal Circuit Design Engineer - Renewable EnergyEngineering | Santa Clara, CA... more
Jun 17 Senior Technical Project Manager - Utility Scale Solar/PV Listed Solar/pv Manufacturer & Developer San Jose, CA

Successful candidates will have at least 2 years experience of utility scale Solar/PV proj ... wiring calculation, inverter sizing, PVSyst, renewable energy, solar, PV, photovoltaic,... more
Jun 14 Renewable Power Engineer-UsaGreenjobsnow.Org USA Green Jobs Now Fairfax, VA

Renewable Power Engineer-UsaGreenjobsnow.Org Renewable Power ... in renewable technologies (e.g. solar PV, solar thermal, on and/or offshore wind,... more
Jun 13 Sales Application Engineer - Engineer - Renewable Energy, Solar Cybercoders Boston, MA

Sales Application Engineer - Engineer - Renewable Energy, Manufacturing, Solar, ... the renewable energy field, specifically in solar energy and design.- NABCEP... more
Jun 13 Renewable Power Engineer USA Green Jobs Now Virginia

in renewable technologies (e.g. solar PV, solar thermal, on and/or offshore wind, ... (technical, performance, economics, etc.) of renewable power generating technologies. ?... more
Jun 13 Sr. Mechanical Design Engineer (Renewable Energy Industry) TL Hitech Fairport, NY

improvement and develop new products in the solar and LED industry. Currently, there are ... Develop/design next generation products to meet demands of the fast-growing solar/LED indu... more
Jun 09 Renewable Energy / Electrical Manager, Engineer Mrinetwork - External Recruitment Houston, TX

OPPORTUNITY - LEADING PLAYER IN THE U.S. WIND POWER INDUSTRY This company is one of ... substation technical support to operating wind farms, including constant on-call... more
Jun 09 MS.Net Architect First Solar Tempe, AZ

development and manufacturing of thin film solar modules used in grid-connected solar ... technical solutions utilizing First Solar*s technology stack including Microsoft,... more

GREENJOBS.COM


North America

Regional Sales, Michigan
Flexible Hours Possible, New Jersey
Support Engineer, Washington
Sales Professional, Massachusetts
Solar Electric Installer, Massachusetts
Project Manager, Massachusetts


International

Proposals Manager, Germany
Solar Sales, Germany
Chemical Process Engr., Germany
Furnace Technologist, Singapore
Wind Resource Analysis, Germany
Business Development, Germany

Energy Conferences Worldwide for June 2011

19 12th Conference of the European Ceramic Society Stockholm Sweden
19 11th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference and Expo – SGEM 2011 (Surveying Geology & mining Ecology Management) Albena resort Bulgaria
19 11th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference and Expo – SGEM2011 Albena Bulgaria
19 CEMEPE 2011 & SECOTOX Conference Skiathos island Greece
19 Cleantech 2011 Workshop & Action Summit Grand Forks North Dakota
20 Electric Vehicle Infrastructure World Congress 2011 Berlin Other
20 Onshore E & P London United Kingdom
20 Smart Lighting Value Chain Summit Santa Clara California
21 International Conference on Electrical, Control and Computer Engineering Kuantan Malaysia
21 Electric Vehicles Infrastructure World 2011 Melbourne Australia
21 Managing Regulatory Compliance for Electric Utilities Denver CO
21 Power Plant Operations & Maintenance Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
21 Euro-American Conference for Academic Disciplines Prague Czech Republic
21 8th Renewable Energy Finance Forum - Wall Street New York City New York
21 European Smart Metering Forum & Smart Metering Update 2011 London United Kingdom
21 Managing Regulatory Compliance for Electric Utilities Denver CO
21 Louisiana Energy Conference New Orleans Louisiana
22 China International Petrochemical Industry Congress 2011 Tianjin China
22 Increasing Renewable Generation Leeds United Kingdom
22 The Nineteenth IASTED International Conference on Applied Modelling and Simulation ~ASM 2011~ Crete Greece
22 Electronic Materials Conference - EMC 2011 Santa Barbara California
22 The Tenth IASTED European Conference on Power and Energy Systems (EuroPES 2011) Crete Greece
The Tenth IASTED European Conference on Power andEnergy Systems (EuroPES 2011) will serve as amajor forum for international researchers andprofessionals to present their latest research,results, and ideas in all areas of power andenergy sys
22 Virginia Offshore Wind Conference Virginia Beach Other
22 Smart Grid 2011 - Implementation Issues & Challenges Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
22 Vietnam Power Summit Hanoi Viet Nam
22 Crans Montana Forum 22nd annual session Brussels Belgium
23 Synchrotron Environmental Science V Saskatoon Canada
23 Natural Gas Demand Summit Houston Texas
23 ENEX 2011 Nairobi Kenya
23 The UK Energy Summit London United Kingdom
What is the best combination of sources to meetthe UK's energy needs affordably, securely andsustainably? There is no consensus on the best wayforward. Become better informed at The UK EnergySummit - Securing a Bright Future.
24 INTERNATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT CONFERENCE 2011 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
The International Renewable Energy & EnvironmentConference, 24-26 June 2011 Kuala Lumpur Malaysiais the leading forum that will bring togetherrenowned researchers, engineers and scientists inthis domain of interest.
24 Building the New Economy: The role of competition London United Kingdom
25 MIGAS 2011 - International Summer School on Microelectronics Grenoble France
27 CLEAN ENERGY TECHNOLOGY Kuala Lumpur Indonesia
27 Gas Storage London United Kingdom
28 Carbon Management For Power Plants San Francisco California
28 PV Balance of Systems Berlin Germany
28 Clean Power Asia Conference and Expo 2011 Bangkok Thailand
28 The R&D Management Conference 2011 Norrköping Sweden
28 Smart Utility Summit 2011 London United Kingdom
28 The US & EU: Addressing the Challenges of Global Competition London United Kingdom
29 CIOSTA Vienna Austria
29 AEBIOM European Bioenergy Conference & RENEXPO® Bioenergy EUROPE Albert Hall Complex, Brussels, Belgium
29 Cannes Water Symposium Cannes France
30 International Symposium on Material Science Engineering and Energy Technology Pathumtani Thailand

Electric System Operations

The physical electric system is comprised of a highly complex and interdependent network of generators, transmission and distribution systems, and customer loads spanning thousands of miles. Despite the diversity of the system, it must always be tightly controlled. Supply and demand must be kept in balance continuously and voltage and frequencies must be kept within tight bounds or serious consequences may ensue-the customers' equipment may fail to run properly, grid equipment may be damaged, and, in the worst of scenarios, the system could crash and customers would experience outages. Managing this complex system in the short term (next day) and real time (current hour) is the responsibility of the electric system operator. System operators must schedule resources to ensure supply is available to match demand and, in real time, must continuously adjust generation levels to match fluctuations.

Operational Characteristics of Power Systems:

Operating power systems is a complex task largely due to a few key physical characteristics. First, electricity cannot effectively be stored. This means that the supply provided by electric generation must be continuously in balance with the demand of customers' usage. The operation of the system is further complicated by the fact that the path of electric flow is very difficult to control. Electrons simply flow on the path of least resistance, whether or not that path matches contractual agreements or the desires of the system operator. Thus interconnected utilities are inextricably entwined with the actions of their neighbors. The only way to avoid this interdependence is for utilities to isolate their systems. But because utilities depend on connections with each other for reliability and access to economic generation sources, this is not a viable solution.

Further complicating system operations is the speed at which system disturbances travel. Electricity travels at the speed of light, and any major system disturbances can be propagated across an interconnected grid in a matter of seconds. Disturbances can be dangerous because uniform voltages and frequencies must be maintained within strict limits to avoid degrading service to customers (e.g., voltage spikes knock off computers, low voltages dim lights, high frequency speeds the operation of electrical machinery and can damage generating equipment, etc.) And in an information society dependent upon computers and microchips, even momentary outages of computers-controlled equipment can cost customers millions of dollars and are not considered acceptable.

KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER SYSTEMS:
*Electricity cannot be stored economically
*Supply and demand must always be in balance
*The path of electric flow cannot be controlled
*Disturbances travel very quickly
*Voltages or frequencies outside of limits damage equipment
*Even momentary outages are not acceptable

What System Operations Does:
System operators, also known as control area operators or balancing authorities manage the actions of generators, transmission owner and load serving entities within their designated control area, and coordinate with neighboring control areas and regional system operators to maintain acceptable levels of service. To do this, system operations must:

**Forecast demand in the day-ahead
**Schedule generation to match forecasted demand
**Schedule reserves and other ancillary services
**Schedule use of the transmission system among various market participants
**Communicate schedules to neighboring operators so flows across interconnections can be anticipated.
**Manage the system in real time by correcting imbalances minute-by-minute
**Correct any system disturbances that may occur
**Restore power should an outage occur

Why Regulate the Electricity Industry?

The electric industry must be regulated due to the existence of monopolies. A monopoly is a business situation in which a corporation-through market power or a government-granted franchise-is either the only company conducting business in a given industry or the sole source of a specific commodity or service. A "natural monopoly" occurs in an industry where characteristics of the industry tend to result in monopolies evolving. a good example is the electric utility industry, where a proportionately large capital investment is required to produce a single unit of output and where large operators can provide goods or services at a lower average cost than can small operators. Both of these conditions occurred in the electric industry in the early 1900's. Thus, what began as a competitive industry quickly evolved into a market with few competitors. While the concept of monopoly utilities was ultimately deemed beneficial to the public, the resulting extreme market power created the potential for excessive profits and unfair favoritism to certain customers. This in turn created the need for government oversight of electric services.

The relationship between regulators and utilities is often described as the "regulatory compact." This means that in return for government regulators granting exclusive service territories and setting rates in a manner that provides an opportunity for a reasonable return on investment, investor-owned public utilities submit their operations to full regulation. In this section we will discuss the history of regulation and then look at how current market restructuring requires modification of the traditional regulatory compact for certain electric industry sectors.

The Goals of Regulators
Regulators generally seek to:

*Minimize costs to consumers and provide relatively stable rates.
*Maintain a fair playing field by not allowing undue discrimination
*Ensure reliable service
*Maximize the efficiency of resource use
*Minimize negative environmental impacts
*Ensure safety
*Encourage innovation in services to customers

Any given regulatory body may choose to focus on some or all of these goals. It should be remembered that in the end regulators are political in nature, and their attention to specific goals is driven by the political realities at any given period in time.

Who Regulates What?
Regulation of the electric marketplace is split between federal, state and local jurisdictions. For vertically-integrated utilities, services including generation, transmission, and distribution on behalf of the utilities' own customers are exempted from federal jurisdiction. These activities are regulated by:

*The state commissions for IOUs.
*The local government entity for municipal utilities in most states (13 states regulate some aspects of municipal utilities including rates).
*The co-op board for rural electric co-ops in most states (19 states regulate some aspects of co-ops including rates).

In states where restructuring has broken up the vertical utility, the IOU's utility distribution function (the utility distribution company, or UDC) remains under the jurisdiction of the state commissions. In these states, most sales of electricity to end users by marketers are only lightly regulated, but often the states create minimal set of rules that the marketers must abide by.

Once utilities begin selling power to other parties besides their own end-use customers, federal jurisdiction is applicable for those specific transactions (although state jurisdiction continues to apply to vertically-integrated activities associated with service to the utilities' own customers). Thus the FERC regulates power sales between utilities and other wholesale entities (other utilities and marketers) and transmission services not on behalf of a utility's end-use customers (commonly called wheeling services). This jurisdiction applies not only to wholesales sales and transmission lines not operated as part of a vertical utility. So merchant power plants and transcos are subject to FERC, not state jurisdiction. This applies even to utility companies that own generation in subsidiaries separate from the UDC and sell the output to their own UDC. In short, if the service is not part of unified vertical utility, it is subject to FERC jurisdiction. This also applies to ISOs, even if they operate only in one state (with the exception of Texas).

Power plant siting is subject to state jurisdiction, while most power plant environmental regulations are federally mandated. Many environmental regulations are enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) while others are enforced by state agencies. Operation of nuclear power plants is federally regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

Distribution

Electric distribution is the movement of electricity from the interconnection with the transmission system through the end-use consumer's meter. If transmission is considered the highway on which electricity travels long distances, the distribution system can be considered the streets and avenues that connect end-use customers to it. Generally, distribution refers to electric systems with voltages lower than 60 kV (although some utilities define distribution as lower than 40 kV). Distribution systems are often divided into primary systems (higher voltages) and secondary systems (lower voltages). Ultimately, the voltage at which electricity is delivered to an end-use consumer must be transformed to the voltage used by the consumer's electrical devices, which for smaller customers is the common 120 V we are used to seeing in our homes and offices. All distribution lines in the United States distribute AC power.

Types of Distribution Systems:

Radial Feed
A radial feed is simply a single line from a transformer out to a number of customers. While the lowest cost of the options, radial feeds do suffer from the fact that loss of cable, primary supply or the transformer will result in loss of service to all customers on that feed. Also, radial circuits must be de-energized to perform routine maintenance and services.

Loop Feed
A loop feed serves customers off a loop that is connected to the primary feed at two ends. This costs more than a radial system since duplicative equipment is required, but does provide the capability of isolating faults within the loop and continuing to feed all customers except those on the section with the fault. The reliability of both radial feeds and loop feeds can be enhanced by adding primary distribution feed to the circuit.

Network System:
A network system connects multiple primary feeds and interconnects multiple distribution circuits in the form of a grid. While network systems provide the highest form of reliability since customers can be served in multiple ways, they are also expensive because of the costs of duplicative equipment, transformers and specialized network protective equipment. Networks are generally used in downtown urban areas with highly dense critical loads.

The Meter
The last key component of the distribution system is the meter located at each customer location. Without the meter, customers cannot be billed and energy companies cannot be paid. Metering is currently undergoing significant transition. Until the last 15 years, almost all meters were read once a month by a meter reader who recorded usage at each customer location. Meter data as generally limited to KWh used and for larger customers maximum kW. Since then we have become accustomed to increasingly sophisticated meters at reduced costs. Now many utilities depend on meters that can be read remotely and make meter data available on a real-time basis. Higher-end meters can be used to record large amounts of useful data including energy usage by time period, demand by time period and various measures of power quality. In the near future, the electric meter may evolve into a services gateway that will allow two-way communication between energy providers and consumers, opening up new ways for energy companies to maximize the efficiency of supply and customers to participate in energy markets.

Transmission

Electric transmission is the movement of large amounts of electricity over long distances. In this process electricity is moved from a central generating unit to an interconnection with an electrical distribution system, or in some cases, directly to industrial customers. The transmission system is the electrical highway that connects supply to demand across a network called an electric grid. Different entities define the facilities that comprise the transmission system somewhat differently, but transmission generally refers to any electric line with voltage greater than 60 kV (some entities use 40 kV as the break, some 115 kV). Typical transmission voltages include 69, 115, 128, 230, 345, 500, and 765 kV. Transmission lines can be designed to transmit either AC (alternating current) power or DC (direct current) power, but not both. Most lines in the U.S. are AC.

The Transmission System

Generation: Generator
Transmission: Station transformer and switchyard - Transmission substation
Distribution: Distribution substation

North American Power Grids
Western Interconnect
Eastern Interconnect
Texas Interconnect
Quebec Interconnect

Ownership of Transmission
Until the advent of electric restructuring in the U.S., transmission lines were owned by vertically-integrated utilities or by federal generation agencies. As restructured electric markets have evolved, some utilities have concluded that it no longer makes sens to own transmission lines, and have sold theirs to transmission companies (also referred to as transcos). A transco is a stand-alone owner and operator of transmission facilities. Many industry observers believe that over time we will evolve to a market structure where transmission ownership and operation is dominated by transcos. This is similar in structure to the current U.S. interstate natural gas transmission system, where investor-owned companies own and operate interstate pipelines as a stand-alone business.

Types of Generation

U.S. Generation Output by Type:

Coal 50%
Natural Gas 19%
Nuclear 19%
Hydro 7%
Fuel Oil 3%
Renewables 2%

(Increases may have occurred since data report)

As you know, utilities or generating companies try to match generation types with the aggregate needs of their customers. To understand how this is done, it is important to first understand that each generation type has different operating, financial and environmental characteristics. Key characteristics include capital costs, variable costs, operational flexibility, environmental impacts, fuel availability, and restraints on locations where units can be constructed. Following is a discussion of each generation type and an assessment of the key characteristics outlined above.

Coal:
The ready availability of low-cost coal has historically made coal-fired generation a favorite of many U.S. utilities. Most coal-fired generation employs steam turbine technology where coal is burned to hear water in boiler tubes. The water becomes steam and is run through a steam turbine that drives a generator shaft to create electricity. Because of economies of scale, most coal units are fairly large in the range of 250 to 1500 MW. The capital costs associated with building coal units are generally high compared with gas units, but many existing units have been on-line for a number of years and thus have been significantly depreciated. Operations and maintenance (O&M) costs are relatively low depending on the age of the unit. Fuel costs have tended to be among the lowest of generation sources in the U.S. Due to technological constraints, coal units do not have good operational flexibility as they generally require several hours to go from cold status to full operation. Because burning coal can be responsible for considerable emissions, coal units are generally considered to have a higher environmental impact than other sources of generation. For this reason and because of high transportation costs, there are areas of the country that do not use coal to generate electricity.

By 2005, high natural gas prices led some utilities and merchant generators to reconsider the value of coal units. A large number of new coal units are currently proposed and their sponsors are moving forward with obtaining permits and other regulatory approvals. While fuel availability and low price are currently attractive, future emissions mitigation costs are unknown since the U.S. has yet to develop regulation for carbon emissions (in the works now). Some companies are turning to development of clean coal technologies such as Integrated Gas Combined Cycle (IGCC) units, while others are choosing to use traditional technologies in the face of uncertainty.

Nuclear:
A number of nuclear units were brought on-line in the United States in the 1970s and 1980s. These units are generally large and range in size from 600 to over 1200 MW. Nuclear generation uses the heat of nuclear fission to create steam that is then run through a steam turbine. Capital costs associated with new nuclear units are very high, but as the units age and are depreciated their book values have declined. Variable costs including fuel are generally low, but fixed maintenance costs are higher due to the extreme safety procedures required as well as the need to collect costs for future decommissioning. Because of the technology employed; nuclear units do not have good operational flexibility, and start-up times are usually measured in days. Because of this inflexibility, nuclear units are used for baseload needs. New development of nuclear generation in the U.S. has been hampered by two key issues-the lack of waste disposal site for spent fuel and public concerns over the risks of a major nuclear accident or terrorist attack. In fact, no new units have been brought on-line in the U.S. since 1996 (although new nuclear units have continued to be built in other countries). As of late 2006, a few companies had begun the licensing process for new nuclear units in the U.S., but any construction appears to be many years away at the earliest. Despite the perceived safety issues, nuclear generation is favorable form the standpoint of emissions-no greenhouse gasses or pollutants such as NOx, SO2, or Mercury are emitted from nuclear generation.

Natural Gas:
As we have seen, very high percentage of new generation built in recent years in the U.S. has been natural gas generation. There is also a large base of older gas-fired steam turbine units in the U.S. generation portfolio. Gas-fired generation makes use of three primary technologies-combustion turbines that use natural gas directly to fire a turbine which drives the generator shaft; steam turbine that burn natural gas to create steam in a boiler which is then run through a steam turbine; and combined-cycle units that utilize a combustion turbine(fired by natural gas) and then steam turbine (wherein waste heat from the combustion turbine is used to produce steam which is the run through the steam turbine). Utility-owned natural gas units vary significantly in size, ranging from as small as 1 MW to over 500 MW. Natural gas is also used to fuel on-site cogeneration units and backup generators for many buildings. Capital costs associated with natural gas units are considerably lower than other generation sources. O&M costs are also generally low. Fuel costs vary depending on the market value of natural gas. As you might imagine, a major concern among owners of natural gas generation are the recent fluctuations in natural gas prices and the apparent tightness of U.S. natural gas supply. Depending on technology, natural gas units can be very flexible operationally. Combustion turbines, often called peaking turbines, can be started and stopped within minutes. Steam turbines may require up to six hours to go from cold status to full power. Although gas units do have some air quality impacts, they are generally less harmful than other carbon fuels (coal or fuel oil) and thus considered favorable from an environmental standpoint. For this and other reasons (units can be smaller, easy access to fuel supply, etc.) gas units also have the advantage that they can be located closer to major loads, and thus require less transmission.

Hydro:
Hydro power is the backbone of many electric generation systems across the United States where significant hydro resources are available (notably the West and parts of the Southeast). Hydro power is created by running water from a reservoir through as hydraulic turbine that spins and drives a generator shaft. Because the power output can be controlled by simply adjusting the water flow, hydro units are generally very flexible. Hydro units range from very small (100 kW) to very large (over 500 MW) with many units in the 100 MW range. Most hydro units were built a number of years ago (with some units dating back to the 1920s), so capital costs have generally been depreciated. O&M costs are generally low and, of course, there is no fuel cost once water rights are acquired. Given their operational flexibility, hydro units are very useful for managing peal loads and for power regulation purposes (keeping supply and demand in balance minute-by-minute) as well as for restoring the grid after a blackout. Although a new hydro dam would now be considered to have large environmental impacts, existing units are generally considered environmentally favorable, with the exception of concerns over impacts on fish populations and downstream activities. A related technology is pumped hydro storage which uses off-peak power to pump water uphill into a reservoir, thus making it available for generation during peak hours. This process is used by utilities as one of the few forms of electricity storage available to them.

Fuel Oil:
A limited number of utilities make use of fuel oil generation as an alternative to natural gas. Fuel oil generation is typically seen in regions where natural gas supply is limited or where utilities have the capability of fuel-switching units based on the relative price of fuel oil compared to natural gas. The technology used in fuel oil generation is similar t natural gas with a few changes to account for physical characteristics of the different fuel. Thus operational characteristics of fuel oil units are similar to natural gas units. The major drawback to fuel oil units is that they have more environmental impacts than their natural gas counterparts. In fact, some areas of the country do not permit fuel oil generation due to air quality concerns.